Racial Trauma & PTSD Reading List

Race Matters in Understanding Mental Health and Trauma

This Page: Critical | Assessment | Treatment | Books | Online Articles | Media | Consulting

I have been contacted by many students, therapists, and researchers seeking scholarly work on racial trauma, PTSD and cultural diversity, historical and cultural trauma, and related materials. Here are some specific articles that address this issue that have been published in the academic literature. Many of these papers demonstrate the very long-lasting effects of oppression, institutionalized racism, and violence on individuals, and others are trauma readings with a cultural diversity focus.

Video Resources

Williams, M. T. (2020). The Trauma of Racism: Assessment and Treatment Techniques for Trauma Rooted in Racism. PESI. (3 CE's)

Williams, M. T. & Wetterneck, C. (2022). Racial Trauma Treatment: A 12-Session CBT Protocol. PESI. (6 CE's)

Literature Review

Williams, M. T., Khanna Roy, A., MacIntyre, M., & Faber, S. (in press). The traumatizing impact of racism in Canadians of colour. Current Trauma Reports. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40719-022-00225-5 [invited]

Williams, M. T., Osman, M., Gran-Ruaz, S., & Lopez, J. (2021). Intersection of racism and PTSD: Assessment and treatment of racism-related stress and trauma. Current Treatment Options in Psychiatry, 8, 167–185. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40501-021-00250-2

Williams, M. T., Haeny, A. & Holmes, S. (2021). Posttraumatic stress disorder and racial trauma. PTSD Research Quarterly, 32(1), 1-9.

Williams, M. T., Osman, M., Gran-Ruaz, S., & Lopez, J. (in press). Intersection of racism and PTSD: Assessment and treatment of racism-related stress and trauma. Current Treatment Options in Psychiatry, 8. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40501-021-00250-2

Grau, P., Kusch, M. M., Williams, M. T., Loyo, K. M., Zhang, X., Warner, R. C., & Wetterneck, C. (in press). A review of the inclusion of ethnoracial groups in empirically-supported posttraumatic stress disorder treatment research. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0001108

Pole, N., Gone, J., & Kulkarni (2008). Posttraumatic stress disorder among ethnoracial minorities in the United States. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 15(1), 35-61.

Gone, J. P., Hartmann, W. E., Pomerville, A., Wendt, D. C., Klem, S. H., & Burrage, R. L. (2019). The impact of historical trauma on health outcomes for indigenous populations in the USA and Canada: A systematic review. American Psychologist, 74(1), 20.

Critical Papers

Bor, J., Venkataramani, A. S., Williams, D. R., & Tsai, A. (2018). Police killings and their spillover effects on the mental health of black Americans: a population-based, quasi-experimental study. The Lancet, 392, 10144, 302-310. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31130-9

Bryant-Davis, T., & Ocampo, C. (2005). Racist incident-based trauma. Counseling Psychologist, 33, 479-500. doi: 10.1177/0011000005276465

Butts, H. F. (2002). The Black mask of humanity: Racial/ethnic discrimination and post-traumatic stress disorder. Journal American Academy of Psychiatry Law, 30(3), 336-339.

Carter, R. T. (2007). Racism and Psychological and Emotional Injury: Recognizing and Assessing Race-Based Traumatic Stress. The Counseling Psychologist, 35(1), 13-105.

Carlson, M. D., Endsley, M., Motley, D., Shawahin, L. N., & Williams, M. T. (2018). Addressing the impact of racism on veterans of color: A race-based stress and trauma group. Psychology of Violence, 8(6), 748-762. doi: 10.1037/vio0000221

Helms, J. E., Nicholas, G., & Green, C. E. (2012). Racism and Ethnoviolence as Trauma: Enhancing Professional and Research Training. Traumatology, 18, 65-74.

Holmes, S. C., Facemire, V. C., & DaFonseca, A. M. (2016). Expanding Criterion A for posttraumatic stress disorder: Considering the deleterious impact of oppression. Traumatology, 22(4), 314-321.

Kira, I. A. (2010). Etiology and treatment of post-cumulative traumatic stress disorders in different cultures. Traumatology, 16(4), 128-141. doi:10.1177/1534765610365914

Williams, M. T., Metzger, I., Leins, C., & DeLapp, C. (2018). Assessing racial trauma within a DSM-5 framework: The UConn Racial/Ethnic Stress & Trauma Survey. Practice Innovations, 3(4), 242-260. doi: 10.1037/pri0000076

Measures and Assessment

Bosson, R., Williams, M. T., Schlaudt, V., Carrico, R., Peña, A., Ramirez, J., & Kanter, J. (2017). Evaluating mental health in Cuban refugees: The role of the Refugee Health Screener-15. Journal of Refugee & Global Health, 1(1), 15-23. doi: 10.18297/rgh/vol1/iss1/4

Carter, R.T., & Sant-Barket, S.M. (2015). Assessment of the impact of racial discrimination and racism: How to use the race-based traumatic stress symptom scale in practice. Traumatology, 21(1), 32-39.

Carter, R. & Pieterse, A. (2020). The Short Form And The Interview Schedule Of The Race-Based Traumatic Stress Symptom Scale. In Measuring the Effects of Racism: Guidelines for the Assessment and Treatment of Race-Based Traumatic Stress Injury (pp. 140-166). New York: Columbia University Press.

Loo, C. M., Fairbank, J. A., Scurfield, R. M., Ruch, L. O., King, D. W., Adams, L. J., & Chemtob, C. M. (2001). Measuring exposure to racism: Development and validation of a Race-Related Stressor Scale (RRSS) for Asian American Vietnam veterans. Psychological Assessment, 13, 503–520. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.13.4.503

Malcoun, E., Williams, M. T., & Bahojb-Nouri, L. V. (2015). Assessment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in African Americans. In L. T. Benuto & B. D. Leany (Eds.), Guide to Psychological Assessment with African Americans (pp. 163-182). New York, NY: Springer. ISBN: 978-1-4939-1003-8.

Sawyer, B., Williams, M.T., DeLapp, R. C. T., & Davis, D. M. (2016). Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. In A. Breland-Noble, C. S. Al-Mateen, & N. N. Singh (Eds.), Handbook of Mental Health in African American Youth (pp. 237-247). Springer. ISBN: 978-3-319-25501-9..

Snipes, C. (2013). Assessment of anxiety with Hispanics. In L. T. Benuto (Ed.), Guide to Psychological Assessment with Hispanics (pp. 153-162). New York, NY, US: Springer Science + Business Media. doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-4412-1_11

Williams, M. T. (2019, February 13). Uncovering the Trauma of Racism. APA Journals Article Spotlight. American Psychological Association.

Williams, M. T., Pena, A., & Mier-Chairez, J. (2017). Tools for assessing racism-related stress and trauma among Latinos. In L. T. Benuto (Ed.), Toolkit for Counseling Spanish-Speaking Clients. Springer. ISBN: 978-3-319-64880-4. doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-64880-4_4

Williams, M. T., Printz, D., Ching, T., & Wetterneck, C. T. (2018). Assessing PTSD in ethnic and racial minorities: Trauma and racial trauma. Directions in Psychiatry, 38(3), 179-196.

Williams, M. T., Printz, D., & DeLapp, R. C. T. (2018). Assessing racial trauma in African Americans with the Trauma Symptoms of Discrimination Scale. Psychology of Violence, 8(6), 735-747. doi: 10.1037/vio0000212

Treatment Focused

...many members of minority groups fear, or feel ill at ease with, the mental health system.
- Surgeon General's Report
US Dept. Health & Human Services, 1999

Bryant-Davis, T., & Ocampo, C. (2006). A therapeutic approach to the treatment of racist-incident-based trauma. Journal of Emotional Abuse, 6(4), 1-22. doi:10.1300/J135v06n04_01

Chavez-Dueñas, N. Y., Adames, H. Y., Perez-Chavez, J. G., & Salas, S. P. (2019). Healing ethno-racial trauma in Latinx immigrant communities: Cultivating hope, resistance, and action. The American Psychologist, 74(1), 49–62. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000289

Comas-Díaz, L. (2016). Racial trauma recovery: A race-informed therapeutic approach to racial wounds. In Alvarez, A.N. (Ed); Liang, C. T. H. (Ed); Neville, H. A. (Ed), The cost of racism for people of color: Contextualizing experiences of discrimination. Cultural, racial, and ethnic psychology book series (pp. 249-272). Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association. doi: 10.1037/14852-012

Evans, A. M., Hemmings, C., Burkhalter, C., & Lacy, V. (2016). Responding to race related trauma: Counseling and research recommendations to promote post-traumatic growth when counseling African American males. The Journal of Counselor Preparation and Supervision, 8(1). doi: 10.7729/81.1085

Hwang, W., & Chan, C. (2019). Compassionate meditation to heal from race-related stress: A pilot study with Asian Americans. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 89(4), 482–492. doi: 10.1037/ort0000372

Kira, I. A., Amer, M. M., & Wrobel, N. H. (2014). Arab refugees: Trauma, resilience, and recovery. In S. C. Nassar-McMillan, K. J. Ajrouch, J. Hakim-Larson, S. C. Nassar-McMillan, K. J. Ajrouch, J. Hakim-Larson (Eds.), Biopsychosocial perspectives on Arab Americans: Culture, development, and health (pp. 175-195). New York, NY, US: Springer.

Laban, C. J. (2015). Resilience-oriented treatment of traumatised asylum seekers and refugees. In M. Schouler-Ocak (Ed.), Trauma and migration: Cultural factors in the diagnosis and treatment of traumatised immigrants (pp. 191-208). Cham, Switzerland: Springer International Publishing. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-17335-1_13

Litam, S. D. A. (2020). "Take Your Kung-Flu Back to Wuhan": Counseling Asians, Asian Americans, and Pacific Islanders with Race-Based Trauma Related to COVID-19. Professional Counselor, 10(2), 144-156.

Malott, K. M., & Schaefle, S. (2015). Addressing clients’ experiences of racism: A model for clinical practice. Journal of Counseling and Development, 93(3), 361–369. doi: 10.1002/jcad.12034

Miller, A., Williams, M. T., Wetterneck, C. T., Kanter, J., & Tsai, M. (2015). Using functional analytic psychotherapy to improve awareness and connection in racially diverse client-therapist dyads. The Behavior Therapist, 38(6), 150-156.

Saleem, F. T., Anderson, R. E., & Williams, M. T. (2020). Addressing the "myth" of racial trauma: Developmental and ecological considerations for youth of color. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 23(1), 1–14. doi: 10.1007/s10567-019-00304-1

Sawyer, B., DeLapp, R. C. T., & Williams, M. T. (2016). Community Violence Exposure, Racial Discrimination, and Barriers to Treatment: Implications for African American Males in Counseling. In W. Ross (Ed.), Counseling African American Males: Effective Therapeutic Interventions and Approaches (pp. 33-60). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.

Williams, M. T., Malcoun, E., Sawyer, B., Davis, D. M., Bahojb-Nouri, L. V., & Leavell Bruce, S. (2014). Cultural Adaptations of Prolonged Exposure Therapy for Treatment and Prevention of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in African Americans. Behavioral Sciences — Special Issue: PTSD and Treatment Considerations, 4(2), 102-124. doi:10.3390/bs4020102

Case Studies

Ching, T. H. W. (in press). Culturally attuned behavior therapy for anxiety and depression in Asian Americans: Addressing racial microaggressions and deconstructing the model minority myth. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice. doi: 10.1016/j.cbpra.2021.04.006

Halstead, M., Reed, S., Krause, R., & Williams, M. T. (2021). Ketamine-assisted psychotherapy for PTSD related to experiences of racial discrimination. Clinical Case Studies, 20(4), 310-330. https://doi.org/10.1177/1534650121990894

Experimental

Carter, R.T., Roberson, K. and Johnson, V.E. (2020), Race-Based Stress in White Adults: Exploring the Role of White Racial Identity Status Attitudes and Type of Racial Events. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 48: 95-107. https://doi.org/10.1002/jmcd.12168

Cheng, H. L., & Mallinckrodt, B. (2015). Racial/ethnic discrimination, posttraumatic stress symptoms, and alcohol problems in a longitudinal study of Hispanic/Latino college students. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 62, 38–49. doi:10.1037/cou0000052

Dale, S. K., & Safren, S. A. (2019). Gendered racial microaggressions predict posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms and cognitions among Black women living with HIV. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 11(7), 685–694. doi:10.1037/tra0000467.supp

Flores, E., Tschann, J. M., Dimas, J. M., Pasch, L. A., & de Groat, C. L. (2010). Perceived racial/ethnic discrimination, posttraumatic stress symptoms, and health risk behaviors among Mexican American adolescents. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 57, 264–273. doi:10.1037/a0020026

Hemmings, C., & Evans, A. (2018). Identifying and Treating Race-Based Trauma in Counseling. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 46(1), 20–39. https://doi.org/10.1002/jmcd.12090

Pieterse, A. L., Carter, R. T., Evans, S. A., & Walter, R. A. (2010). An exploratory examination of the associations among racial and ethnic discrimination, racial climate, and trauma-related symptoms in a college student population. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 57, 255–263. doi:10.1037/a0020040

Tessitore, F. (2021). The Asylum Seekers Photographic Interview (ASPI): Evaluation of a new method to increase Nigerian asylum seekers’ narrative meaning-making after trauma. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000913

Sibrava, N. J., Bjornsson, A. S., Pérez Benítez, A. C. I., Moitra, E., Weisberg, R. B., & Keller, M. B. (2019). Posttraumatic stress disorder in African American and Latinx adults: Clinical course and the role of racial and ethnic discrimination. American Psychologist, 74(1), 101.

Watson, L. B., DeBlaere, C., Langrehr, K. J., Zelaya, D. G., & Flores, M. J. (2016). The influence of multiple oppressions on women of color's experiences with insidious trauma. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 63(6), 656-667. doi: 10.1037/cou0000165

Wei, M., Wang, K. T., Heppner, P. P., & Du, Y. (2012). Ethnic and mainstream social connectedness, perceived racial discrimination, and posttraumatic stress symptoms. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 59(3), 486–493. doi:10.1037/a0028000

Other Useful Readings (research and theory)

Bierer, L. M., Bader, H. N., Daskalakis, N. P., Lehrner, A. L., Makotkine, I., Seckl, J. R., & Yehuda, R. (2014). Elevation of 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 activity in Holocaust survivor offspring: Evidence for an intergenerational effect of maternal trauma exposure. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 481-10. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2014.06.001

Bosson, R., Williams, M. T., Lippman, S., Carrico, R., Kanter, J., Peña, A., Mier-Chairez, J., & Ramirez, J. (2017). Addressing refugee mental health needs: From concept to implementation. The Behavior Therapist, 40(3), 110-112.

Chioneso, N. A., Hunter, C. D., Gobin, R. L., McNeil Smith, S., Mendenhall, R., & Neville, H. A. (2020). Community healing and resistance through storytelling: A Framework to Address Racial Trauma in Africana Communities. Journal of Black Psychology, 46(2–3), 95–121. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798420929468

Ching, T. H. W., Lee, S., Chen, J., So, R., & Williams, M. T. (2018). A model of intersectional stress and trauma in Asian American sexual and gender minorities. Psychology of Violence, 8(6), 657-668. doi: 10.1037/vio0000204

Comas-Dıaz, L., & Jacobsen, F. M. (2001). Ethnocultural Allodynia. Journal of Psychotherapy Practice & Research, 10(4), 246-252.

Hays, P. A. (2009). Integrating evidence-based practice, cognitive–behavior therapy, and multicultural therapy: Ten steps for culturally competent practice. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 40(4), 354-360.

Kanter, J. W., Santiago-Rivera, A. L., Santos, M. M., Nagy, G., López, M., Hurtado, G. D., & West, P. (2015). A randomized hybrid efficacy and effectiveness trial of behavioral activation for Latinos with depression. Behavior Therapy, 46(2), 177-192. doi:10.1016/j.beth.2014.09.011

Kirkinis, K., Pieterse, A. L., Martin, C., Agiliga, A., & Brownell, A. (2018). Racism, racial discrimination, and trauma: a systematic review of the social science literature. Ethnicity & Health. doi: 10.1080/13557858.2018.1514453

Kohlenberg, B. S., Tsai, M., & Kohlenberg, R. J. (2006). Functional Analytic Psychotherapy and the Treatment of Complex Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. In V. M. Follette, J. I. Ruzek, V. M. Follette, J. I. Ruzek (eds.), Cognitive-behavioral therapies for trauma (2nd ed.) (pp. 173-197). New York, NY, US: Guilford Press.

Metzger, I. W., Anderson, R. E., Are, F., & Ritchwood, T. (2021). Healing Interpersonal and Racial Trauma: Integrating Racial Socialization Into Trauma-Focused Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for African American Youth. Child Maltreatment, 26(1), 17–27. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559520921457

Mosley, D. V., Hargons, C. N., Meiller, C., Angyal, B., Wheeler, P., Davis, C., & Stevens-Watkins, D. (2021). Critical consciousness of anti-Black racism: A practical model to prevent and resist racial trauma. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 68(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000430

Nagata, D. K., Kim, J. H., & Wu, K. (2019). The Japanese American wartime incarceration: Examining the scope of racial trauma. American Psychologist, 74(1), 36.

Williams, M. T., Reed, S., & Aggarwal, R. (2020). Culturally-informed research design issues in a study for MDMA-assisted psychotherapy for posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Psychedelic Studies, 4(1), 40–50. doi: 10.1556/2054.2019.016

Books

Collins, R. D. (2007). The Trauma Zone. Chicago: Moody Publishers. ISBN-13: 978-0802489890

DeGruy, J. (2005). Post-Traumatic Slave Syndrome. Uptone Press. ISBN 978-0963401120

Menakem, R. (2017). My Grandmother’s Hands: Racialized Trauma and the Pathway to Mending Our Hearts and Bodies. Las Vegas: Central Recovery Press. ISBN-13: 978-1942094470

Nadal, K. L. (2018). Microaggressions and Traumatic Stress: Theory, Research, and Clinical Treatment. American Psychological Association.

Williams, M. T., Rosen, D. C., & Kanter, J. W. (2019). Eliminating Race-Based Mental Health Disparities: Promoting Equity and Culturally Responsive Care Across Settings. New Harbinger Books. ISBN: 978-1-68403-196-2

Racial Trauma Articles for a General Audience

Parker, G., Butler, S. K., Flynn, A., Young, D., Fisher, L., Williams, M. & Taylor, Z. (2020, September). Race and Healing: Expanding the Conversation. Psychotherapy Networker.

Williams, M. (2020, June 30). An Interview with Monnica Williams, PhD, ABPP on Collective Trauma. National Center for Integrated Behavioral Health. University of Pennsylvania Medical School.

DeLapp, R.C.T. & Williams, M. (2016, July). Proactively Coping With Racism. Psychology Today.

Williams, M. (2015, September). The Link Between Racism and PTSD. Psychology Today.

Williams, M. (2015, August). Understanding Race-Based Trauma. University of Louisville Med School Newsletter.

Institution for the Study and Promotion of Race and Culture. Racial Trauma is Real Infographic. Boston College.

SAMHSA. African Americans and Mental Health.

Janssen, S. Racial Trauma in African American Underuse of Hospice & Palliative Care. Social Work Today.

Racial Trauma Articles in the Media

Sorensen, D.(2020, October). Microaggressions, Mental Health Disparities, and Racial Trauma with Monnica Williams. Psychologists Off The Clock.

Mocerino, M. (2020, August 24). Treating Racial Trauma with Dr. Monnica Williams. Chacruna Institute.

Turner, E. (2019, March 5). Surviving in a Racist Society: Racial Trauma and African Americans. The Breakdown Podcast.

Janikian, M. (2019, September 2). MDMA for Racial Trauma. Double Blind.

Shockman, E. (2016, July 30). What does racism do to your health? Science Friday. NPR & GlobalPost/PRI.

Harrison, M. (2016, July 25). Can racism cause post-traumatic stress disorder? The Louisiana Weekly [New Orleans].

Flatow, I. (2016, July 15). The Health Costs of Racism [public radio]. Science Friday. NYC: NPR

Alfaro, J. (2016, July 22). After the Violence and Videos, Therapists Learn to Treat Racial Trauma. YES! Magazine.

Love, D. (2016, June 3). PTSD and Mental Health Disorders in Black People Linked to Trauma From Racism and Violence. Atlanta Blackstar.

Wortham, J. (2015, June 24). Racism's Psychological Toll. The New York Times.

Nadia-Elysse, H. (2013, May 23). Changes In DSM-5: Racism Can Cause PTSD Similar To That of Soldiers After War. Medical Daily.

 
Cultural Consultation and Training

Dr. Williams provides consultations with researchers in the implementation of culturally-informed research design to improve inclusion of people of color in research samples, and institutional equity, including ways to increase diversity and facilitate an improved racial environment. Contact her for a consultation.